Can be tested. The textbook concludes that contemporary motivation study is in a new paradigm. What is so new about the new paradigm? A few critical motivation theories have emerged as most important to the field and worth most of the attention. Motivational psychology no longer studies unconscious, psychological, biological, or evolutionary processes.
The contemporary landscape is more like an intellectual democracy of ideas than it is like the kingship of the grand theories era. We should limit our contemporary study to the instigators of behavior. In which of the following developmental stages of a scientific discipline does the following occur: An unexplained anomaly that cannot be explain emerges.
A new way of thinking begins to emerge. Some participants resist the new way of thinking, while other participants begin to embrace the new-and-improved way of thinking. In terms of the historical study of motivation, what was so important about the fact that motivational thinkers began to focus on applied, socially-relevant research?
A focus on naturally-occurring instances of motivation outside the research laboratory. An ideological shift away from studying human motivational constructs. The emergence of motivation study as the most important field in the study of psychology. Which of the following is NOT part of the limbic system? Hippocampus B. Amygdala C. Medulla D. This part of the brain regulates heart rate and hormone secretion in response to certain environmental influences.
It controls the autonomic nervous system. Hypothalamus B. Prefrontal Cortex C. Reticular Formation D. The more you diet, the hungrier you get. The hunger-stimulating hormone circulated in the blood and detected and monitored by the brain is:.
Which of the following brain structures is involved in generating pleasure or the subjective experience of reinforcement? Circuits and formations B. Enzymes and monoamines C. Glands and release-chemicals D. Neurotransmitters and hormones. According to the textbook, the current gold-standard for looking deeply inside the brain to monitor its activity during a motivational or emotional state is the:.
Food deprivation dieting increases ghrelin. Increased ghrelin stimulates the hypothalamus. Social pressures lead people to want to diet. The hypothalamus generates felt hunger. Which of the following statements about the neural interventions between the frontal cortex and the amygdala is most true? The amygdala projects relatively many fibers upwards to the frontal cortex while the frontal cortex projects relatively few fibers down to the amygdala.
The amygdala projects relatively few fibers upwards to the frontal cortex while the frontal cortex projects relatively many fibers down to the amygdala. The number of nerve fibers projected upward to the frontal cortex from the amygdala is about the same as the number of fibers projected downward to the amygdala from the frontal cortex.
Dense fibers flow both ways—many fibers project upward to the frontal cortex from the amygdala and many fibers project downward to the amygdala from the frontal cortex. Sympathetic nervous system activation B. Stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of reward C.
Time of day and eating schedules breakfast, lunch, dinner D. Stress hormone release. A-peptide B. Cortisol C. K-peptide D. Which of the following is the closest synonym to appetite?
Homeostasis B. Negative feedback signal C. Psychological drive D. Of the following physiological needs, which one is relatively little regulated by intra-organismic mechanisms and relatively much regulated by extra-organismic ones?
What is the most important environmental influence for drinking? Which of the following statements is not true about hunger and feeding behavior? Intravenous injection of glucose decreases activity in the lateral hypothalamus. The body monitors its fat cells rather precisely. The glucostatic hypothesis explains the set-point theory of hunger and eating.
What is the difference between the traditional sex response cycle and the alternative sex response cycle as outlined in the textbook. In the traditional cycle, sexual desire is triggered first in the presence physiological sexual arousal whereas in the alternative cycle, sexual desire is triggered later in response to emotional intimacy and relationship factors.
In the traditional sex response cycle, sex begins with intimacy needs whereas the alternative outlines four distinct stages of desire, arousal, orgasm, and resolution. The traditional sex response is true only for women.
The alternative sex response is a very rare sexual response. Consider mating strategies. For both men and women, kindness is a necessity. For both men and women, being the same age is a necessity. For men, physical attractiveness is a necessity in women; for women, social status is a necessity in men. For men, social status is a necessity in women; for women, physical attractiveness is a necessity in men. People fail to self-regulate their bodily appetites for three primary reasons.
Which one of the following is not one of those reasons? People fail to monitor what they are doing, as they become distracted or overwhelmed. People can lack standards or have inconsistent, conflicting, unrealistic, or inappropriate standards of how to behave. People pay relatively too much attention to their long-term goals and relatively too little attention to their short-term goals.
When not currently experiencing them, people underestimate how powerful biological urges can be. None of the above. Which of the following is a difference between a Controlling function and an Informational function? A Controlling Function decreases intrinsic motivation, while an Informational function increases intrinsic motivation.
A Controlling function undermines learning, while an Informational function enhances learning. A Controlling function decreases self-regulation, while an Informational function encourages self-regulation. All of the above. In the Lepper et al. Which of the following is a benefit of extrinsic rewards? Rewards can increase autonomous self-regulation. Rewards can promote conceptual understanding of the information to be learned.
Rewards can promote creativity. Rewards make an otherwise uninteresting task suddenly seem worth pursuing. Which of the following is not an assumption of cognitive evaluation theory? According to Deci and Ryan's cognitive evaluation theory, all extrinsic events have two functional aspects: a controlling aspect and an informational aspect. To say that an external event is informational means that it:.
The reason an externally-provided rationale works as a motivational strategy during an uninteresting activity is because it can:. Which of the following ways of delivering praise best supports the intrinsic motivation of the other person? Good job, but you must try harder next time.
Good job, please keep it up because you make me so proud. Good job, you did just what you were supposed to do. With which of the following statements would an intrinsic motivation theorist most readily agree? People are inherently active. People are inherently passive. People pursue pleasure, mostly through sensory experience. People seek rewards and avoid punishments. Consider the motivation of an athlete. Which of the following relationships between a coach and an athlete reflects a person— environment dialectic?
The athlete practices her sport with energy and purpose. The coach instructs the athlete and provides detailed and timely feedback. The athlete shows interest, the coach recommends a game to play as practice, the athlete plays the game out of interest. The coach tells the athlete what to do during practice, and the athlete practices that way with skill and expertise. Autonomy B. Competence C. Relatedness D. Which one of the following is an autonomy-supportive behavior? The greater one's effectance motivation, the greater one's desire to seek out and approach situations that:.
In his research with chess masters, rock climbers, dancers, and surgeons, Csikszentmihalyi found that the fundamental antecedent to "flow" is that the activity must provide its participants with:. Which of the following is not considered to be evidence that people have a psychological need for relatedness?
Once formed, people are reluctant to break social bonds, or relationships. So many people from so many different cultures eventually get married. Social bonds between people seem to form so easily. We go out of our way to create a relationship when given the opportunity to interact with others in face-to-face interactions.
Authoritarian parenting B. Relatedness to others C. Relationship reciprocity D. Social exchange. Structure enhances engagement because it involves and satisfies the need for:. When people have days that allow them to feel self-determined, competent, and interpersonally related, they are more likely to agree with which of the following statements:. Which type of need is described here: Ephemeral, situationally-induced wants that create tense energy to engage in that behavior which is capable of reducing the built-up tension.
The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for achievement is:.
The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for affiliation is:. The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for intimacy is:. The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for power is:.
The impetus desire to do well relative to a standard of excellence for an achievement-oriented individual involves:. According to the dynamics-of-action model, achievement behavior eventually ends because:. Due to the deficiency-based nature of the need for affiliation, what emotion will the person feel with the need is satisfied?
Roane, Lerman, and Vorndran utilized a PR schedule to show that reinforcing stimuli may be differentially effective as response requirements increase. Stimuli associated with more responding as the schedule requirement increased were more effective in the treatment of destructive behaviors than those associated with less responding. Unlike simple schedules that only have one requirement which must be met to receive reinforcement, complex schedules are characterized by being a combination of two or more simple schedules.
They can take on many different forms as you can see below. First, the multiple schedule includes two or more simple schedules, each associated with a specific stimulus. For instance, a rat is trained to push a lever under a FR 10 schedule when a red light is on but to push the lever according to a VI 30 schedule when a white light is on.
Reinforcement occurs after the condition for that schedule is met. So the organism receives reinforcement after the FR 10 and VI 30 schedules. Similar to a multiple schedule, a mixed schedule has more than one simple schedule, but they are not associated with a specific stimulus. The rat in our example could be under a FR 10 schedule for 30 seconds and then the VI 30 schedule for 60 seconds. The organism has no definitive way of knowing that the schedule has changed.
In a conjunctive schedule , two or more simple schedules must have their conditions met before reinforcement is delivered. Using our example, the rat would have to make 10 lever presses FR 10 and a lever press after an average of 30 seconds has passed VI 30 to receive a food pellet. The order that the schedules are completed in does not matter; just that they are completed.
In a chained schedule , a reinforcer is delivered after the last in a series of schedules is complete, and each schedule is controlled by a specific stimulus a discriminative stimulus or SD. The chain must be completed in the pre-determined order. When a red light is on, the rat would learn to make 10 lever presses. Once complete, a green light would turn on and the rat would be expected to make an average of 15 lever presses before the light turns yellow indicating the FI 30 schedule is in effect.
Once the 30 seconds are up and the rat makes a lever press, reinforcement occurs. Then the light turns red again indicating a return to the FR 10 schedule. Similar to the multiple-mixed schedule situation, this type of schedule can occur without the discriminative stimuli and is called a tandem schedule. A schedule can also adjust such that after the organism makes 30 lever presses, the schedule changes to 35 presses, and then Previous good performance leads to an expectation of even better performance in the future.
In an interesting twist on schedules, a cooperative schedule requires two organisms to meet the requirements together.
If we place rats on a FR 30 schedule, any combination of 30 lever presses would yield food pellets. One rat could make 20 of the lever presses and the other 10 and both would receive the same reinforcement. Of course, we could make it a condition that both rats make 15 presses each, and it would not matter if one especially motivated rat makes more lever presses than the other.
You might be thinking this type of schedule sounds familiar. It is the essence of group work whereby a group is to turn in, say, a PowerPoint presentation on borderline personality disorder. The group receives the same grade reinforcer no matter how the members chose to divide up the work.
Finally, a concurrent schedule presents an organism with two or more simple schedules at one time and it can choose which to follow. A rat may have the option to press a lever with a red light on a FR 10 schedule or a lever with a green light on a FR 20 schedule to receive reinforcement. Any guesses which one it will end up choosing? Likely the lever on the FR 10 schedule as reinforcement comes quicker. Consider the situation of a child acting out and the parent giving her what she demands.
When this occurs, the parent has reinforced a bad behavior a PR and the tantrum ending reinforces the parent caving into the demand NR. If the same reinforcers occur again, the behavior will persist. Most people near the interaction likely desire a different outcome. Some will want the parent to discipline the girl, but others might handle the situation more like this: these individuals will let the child have her tantrum and just ignore her.
After a bit, the child should calm down and once in a more pleasant state of mind, ask the parent for the toy. The parent will praise the child for acting more mature and agree to purchase the toy, so long as the good behavior continues.
This is an example of differential reinforcement in which we attempt to get rid of undesirable or problem behaviors by using the positive reinforcement of desirable behaviors. Differential reinforcement takes on many different forms. DRA or Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior — This is when we reinforce the desired behavior and do not reinforce undesirable behavior.
Hence, the desired behavior increases and the undesirable behavior decreases to the point of extinction. The main goal of DRA is to increase a desired behavior and extinguish an undesirable behavior such as a student who frequently talks out of turn. The teacher praises the child in front of the class when he raises his hand and waits to be called on and does not do anything if he talks out of turn.
Though this may be a bit disruptive at first, if the functional assessment reveals that the reinforcer for talking out of turn is the attention the teacher gives, not responding to the child will take away his reinforcer.
This strategy allows us to use the reinforcer for the problem behavior with the desirable behavior. Eventually, the child will stop talking out of turn making the problem behavior extinct.
DRO is the strategy when we deliver a reinforcer contingent on the absence of an undesirable behavior for some period. We will need to identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior and then pick one to use when this behavior does not occur.
Determine how long the person must go without making the undesirable behavior and obtain a stopwatch to track the time. Do not reinforce the problem behavior and only reinforce the absence of it using whatever reinforcer was selected, and if it is gone for the full-time interval. If the problem behavior occurs during this time, the countdown resets. Eventually the person will stop making the undesirable behavior and when this occurs, increase the interval length so that the procedure can be removed.
For instance, if a child squirms in his seat, the teacher might tell him if he sits still for 5 minutes he will receive praise and a star to put on the star chart to be cashed in at a later time.
If he moves before the 5 minutes is up, he has to start over, but if he is doing well, then the interval will change to 10 minutes, then 20 minutes, then 30, then 45, and eventually 60 or more. At that point, the child is sitting still on his own and the behavior is not contingent on receiving the reinforcer.
Maybe we are the type of person who really enjoys fast-food and eats it daily. This is of course not healthy, but we also do not want to go cold turkey on it. We could use DRL and decide on how many times each week we will allow ourselves to visit a fast-food chain. Instead of 7 times, we decide that 3 is okay. If we use full session DRL we might say we cannot exceed three times going to a fast-food restaurant in a week defined as Mon to Sun.
Full session simply means you do not exceed the allowable number of behaviors during the specified time period. Eating fast-food three times in a day is definitely not healthy, and to be candid, gross, so a better approach could be to use spaced DRL. Now we say that we can go to a fast-food restaurant every other day. We could go on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.
This works because we have not exceeded 3 behaviors in the specified time of one week. If we went on Sunday too, this would constitute four times going to a fast-food restaurant and we would not receive reinforcement.
Spaced DRL produces paced responding. The point of DRI is to substitute a behavior. If a child is made to sit appropriately in his seat they cannot walk around the room. Sitting is incompatible with walking around. DRI delivers a reinforcer when another behavior is used instead of the problem behavior. To say it another way, we reinforce behaviors that make the undesirable or problem behavior impossible to make.
DRI is effective with habit behaviors such as thumb sucking. We reinforce the child keeping his hands in his pocket. Or what if a man tends to make disparaging remarks at drivers who cut him off or are driving too slowly by his standard. These alternative behaviors are incompatible with cursing and she rewards him with a kiss when he uses them. In this type of differential reinforcement, we reinforce a behavior occurring at a high rate or very often or seek to increase a behavior. Many jobs use this approach and reward workers who are especially productive by giving them rewards or special perks.
For instance, I used to work for Sprint Long Distance when selling long distance to consumers was a thing. We won the trips because we sold large numbers of long-distance plans, and other products such as toll-free numbers, in a designated period of time every 3 months or every 12 months.
Hence, a high rate of responding i. Within motivation theory, a need arises when there is a deviation from optimal biological conditions such as not having enough calories to sustain exercise. This causes a drive which is an unpleasant state such as hunger or thirst and leads to motivated behavior. The purpose of this behavior, such as going to the refrigerator to get food or taking a drink from a water bottle, is to reduce or satisfy the drive.
When we eat food, we gain the calories needed to complete a task or take a drink of water to sate our thirst. The need is therefore resolved. Hull said that any behavior we engage in that leads to a reduction of a drive is reinforcing and will be repeated in the future. So, if we walk to the refrigerator and get food which takes away the stomach grumbles associated with hunger, we will repeat this process in the future when we are hungry.
Eating food to take away hunger exemplifies Negative Reinforcement. Hull said there were two types of drives, which mirrors our earlier discussion of primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers.
Primary drives are associated with innate biological needs states that are needed for survival such as food, water, urination, sleep, air, temperature, pain relief, and sex. Secondary drives are learned and are associated with environmental stimuli that lead to the reduction of primary drives, thereby becoming drives themselves. Essentially, secondary drives are like NS in respondent conditioning and become associated with primary drives which are US.
Hull said these S-R connections are strengthened the more times reinforcement occurs, and called this habit strength or formation Hull, Though Hull presents an interesting theory of reinforcement, it should be noted that not all reinforcers are linked to the reduction of a drive.
No drive state is reduced in this scenario. Operant conditioning involves making a response for which there is a consequence. This consequence is usually regarded as a stimulus such that we get an A on an exam and are given ice cream by our parents something we see, smell, and taste — YUMMY!!!!
But what if the consequence is actually a behavior? Instead of seeing the consequence as being presented, such as with the example of the stimulus of the ice cream, what if we really thought of it as being given the chance to eat ice cream which is a behavior the act of eating? This is the basic premise of the Premack principle , or more specifically, viewing reinforcers the consequence as behaviors and not stimuli, which leads to high-probability behavior being used to reinforce low-probability behavior Premack, Consider that in many maze experiments, we obtain the behavior of running the maze i.
The next day the rat wants to eat something and to do so it needs to complete the maze. The maze running is our low probability behavior or the one least likely to occur and the one the rat really does not want to do and upon finishing the maze the rat is allowed to eat food pellets the consequence of the behavior of running and the high probability behavior, or the one most likely to occur as the rat is hungry.
Eating high is used to reinforce running the maze low and both are behaviors. So, I eat something low and then get to go to the gym to run on the treadmill the consequence and high probability behavior. For me, going to the gym reinforced eating breakfast.
A third theory of reinforcement comes from Timberlake and Allison and states that a behavior becomes reinforcing when an organism cannot engage in the behavior as often as it normally does.
In other words, the response deprivation hypothesis says that the behavior falls below its baseline or preferred level. What if I place a condition on his playing that he must clean up after dinner each night, to include doing the dishes and taking out the trash.
He will be willing to work to maintain his preferred level of gameplay. He will do dishes and take the trash out so he can play his games for 2 hours. You might even say that a condition was already in place — doing homework before playing games. The games are reinforcement for the behavior of doing homework….
If my son does not do his chores, then he will not be allowed to play games, resulting in his preferred level falling to 0. Consider that the Premack principle and relative deprivation hypothesis are similar to one another in that they both establish a contingency. For the Premack principle, playing video games is a high probability behavior and doing chores such as cleaning up after dinner is a low probability behavior.
My son will do the chores low because he gets to play video games afterward high. So high reinforces the occurrence of low. The end result is the same as the response deprivation hypothesis. How these ideas differ is in terms of what is trying to be accomplished. In the Premack principle scenario, we are trying to increase the frequency of one behavior in relation to another while in the case of the relative deprivation hypothesis we are trying to increase one behavior in relation to its preferred level.
Module 6 is long, and you need your cognitive resources. When an antecedent i. It is now more likely to occur in the presence of this specific stimulus or a stimulus class , defined as antecedents that share similar features and have the same effect on behavior.
Consider the behavior of hugging someone. Who might you hug? A good answer is your mother. She expects and appreciates hugs. Your mother is an antecedent to which hugging typically occurs. Others might include your father, sibling s , aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, spouse, and kids.
These additional people fall under the stimulus class and share a similar feature of being loved ones. You could even include your bff. What you would not do is give the cashier at Walmart a hug. That would just be weird.
Do you stop when you get to a red octagonal sign? Probably, and the Stop sign has control over your behavior. In fact, you do not even have to think about stopping. You just do so. It has become automatic for you. The problem is that many of the unwanted behaviors we want to change are under stimulus control and happen without us even thinking about them.
These will have to be modified for our desired behavior to emerge. We have established that we will cease all movement of our vehicle at a red octagonal stop sign and without thinking. Stimulus discrimination is the process of reinforcing a behavior when a specific antecedent is present and only it is present.
We experience negative reinforcement when we stop at the red octagonal sign and not a sign of another color, should a person be funny and put one up. The NR, in this case, is the avoidance of something aversive such as an accident or ticket, making it likely that we will obey this traffic sign in the future. Discrimination training involves the reinforcement of a behavior when one stimulus is present but extinguishing the behavior when a different stimulus is present.
From the example above, the red stop sign is reinforced but the blue one is not. And this is where stimulus control comes in. The discriminated behavior should be produced by the SD only. In terms of learning experiments, we train a pigeon to peck an oval key but if he pecks a rectangular one, no reinforcer is delivered. As a stimulus can be discriminated, so too can it be generalized. Stimulus generalization is when a behavior occurs in the presence of similar, novel stimuli and these stimuli can fall on a generalization gradient.
Think of this as an inverted u-shaped curve. The middle of the curve represents the stimulus that we are training the person or animal to respond to. As you move away from this stimulus, to the left or right, the other stimuli become less and less like the original one.
So, near the top of the inverted U, a red oval or circle will be like a red octagon but not the same. Near the bottom of the curve, you have a toothbrush that has almost zero similarity to a stop sign. This is called generalization training and is when we reinforce behavior across situations until generalization occurs for the stimulus class. The desirable behavior should generalize from the time with a therapist or applied behavior analyst and to all other situations that matter.
One critical step is to exert control over the cues for the behavior and when these cues bring about a specific behavior, which, if you recall, are termed discriminative stimuli also called an SD. So, what makes an antecedent a cue for a behavior?
Simply, the behavior is reinforced in the presence of the specific stimulus and not reinforced when the stimulus or antecedent is not present. The strategies we will discuss center on two ideas: we can modify an existing antecedent or create a new one.
With some abusive behaviors centered on alcohol, drugs, nicotine, or food, the best policy is to never even be tempted by the substance. If you do not smoke the first cigarette, eat the first donut, take the first drink, etc. It appears that abstinence is truly the best policy. Another way you can look at antecedents is to focus on the consequences. Why would that be an antecedent manipulation? Consider that we might focus on the motivating properties of the consequence so that in the future, we want to make the behavior when the same antecedent is present.
Notice the emphasis on want. Remember, you are enhancing the motivating properties. How do we do this? From our earlier discussion, we know that we can use the motivating operations of establishing and abolishing operations. See Section 6. But they make up the last two antecedent manipulations that can be employed to bring about the desired behavior. One way to help a response occur is to use what are called prompts , or a stimulus that is added to the situation and increases the likelihood that the desirable response will be made when it is needed.
The response is then reinforced. There are four main types of prompts:. These are all useful and it is a safe bet to say that you have experienced all of them at some point.
How so? You were hired to work the cash register and take orders. On your first day, you are assigned a trainer and she walks you through what you need to do. She might give you verbal instructions as to what needs to be done and when, and how to work the cash register. As you are taking your first order on your own, you cannot remember which menu the Big Mac meal fell under. She might point in the right area which would be making a gesture. Your trainer might even demonstrate the first few orders before you take over so that you can model or imitate her later.
And finally, if you are having problems, she could take your hand and touch the Big Mac meal key, though this may be a bit aversive for most and likely improper. The point is that the trainer could use all of these prompts to help you learn how to take orders from customers.
Consider that the prompts are in a sort of order from the easiest or least aversive verbal to the hardest or most aversive physical. This will be important in a bit. It is also prudent to reinforce the person when they engage in the correct behavior.
If you told the person what to do, and they do it correctly, offer praise right away. The same goes for them complying with your gesture, imitating you correctly, or subjecting themselves to a physical and quite intrusive or aversive prompt.
When you use prompts, you also need to use what is called fading , which is the gradual removal of the prompt s once the behavior continues in the presence of the SD. Fading establishes a discrimination in the absence of the prompt. Eventually, you transfer stimulus control from the prompt to the SD. Prompts are not a part of everyday life. Yes, you use them when you are in training, but after a few weeks, your boss expects you to take orders without even a verbal prompt.
To get rid of prompts, you can either fade or delay the prompts. Prompt fading is when the prompt is gradually removed as it is no longer needed. Fading within a prompt means that you use just one prompt and once the person has the procedure down, you stop giving them a reminder or nudge. Maybe you are a quick study, and the trainer only needs to demonstrate the correct procedure once modeling. The trainer would simply discontinue use of the prompt.
You can also use what is called fading across prompts. This is used when two or more prompts are needed. Maybe you are trying to explain an algebraic procedure to your child who is gifted in math. Once the procedure is learned, you would not use any additional prompts.
You are fading from least to most intrusive. But your other child is definitely not math-oriented. In this case, modeling would likely be needed first and then you could drop down to gestural and verbal. This type of fading across prompts moves from most to least intrusive. Finally, prompt delay can be used and is when you present the SD and then wait for the correct response to be made.
You delay delivering any prompts to see if the person engages in the desirable behavior on their own. If he or she does, then no prompt is needed, but if not, then you use whichever prompt is appropriate at the time. If not, you use the appropriate prompt. Sometimes there is a new ish behavior we want a person or animal to make but they will not necessarily know to make it, or how to make it.
As such, we need to find a way to mold this behavior into what we want it to be. The following example might sound familiar to you. You decide not to tell them this by voice but play a game with them. For shaping to work, the successive approximations must mimic the target behavior so that they can serve as steps toward this behavior. Skinner used this procedure to teach rats in a Skinner box operant chamber to push a lever and receive reinforcement.
This was the final behavior he desired them to make and to get there, he had them placed in the box and reinforced as they moved closer and closer to the lever. Once at the lever the rat was only reinforced when the lever was pushed. Along the way, if the rat went back into parts of the chamber already explored it received no reinforcement. The rat had to move to the next step of the shaping procedure. We use the shaping procedure with humans in cases such as learning how to do math problems or learning a foreign language.
We are almost finished with our coverage of operant conditioning. Before moving onto the final two sections, take a break. Section 6. Below are some keys to good communication. These skills and techniques may seem strange and awkward at first. But if you stick with them, they will become natural in time.
As an added bonus, you will improve all of your communication with others inside and outside your family. Active listening is a way of listening to others that lets them know you are working to understand the message they are sending.
You will be surprised at how your conversations and relationships change when you focus on listening to the other person— rather than thinking of your next response. Finally, children learn the most by communicating with us and by watching how adults communicate with each other. Families are faced with balancing the needs and wants of many different people.
Naturally conflicts are going to arise. In accordance with Federal law and U. Department of Agriculture policy, Cooperative Extension is prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability.
Skip to site content. Fact Sheets And Publications. Cooperative Extension. Plant and Insect Diagnostics. Soil Testing. Garden Helpline. Ask Extension. Staff Directory. Communication Skills for Your Family Communication is the basic building block of our relationships. Developing good communication skills is critical for successful relationships, whether parent, child, spouse, or sibling relationship. Generally, when we feel heard, we are less angry, stressed, and more open to resolving problems than when we feel misunderstood.
Feeling heard and understood also develops trust and caring between people. Communication is a two-way process. For communication to happen there must be 1 a sender—who conveys a message—and 2 a receiver—to whom the message is sent. In successful communication the sender is clear and accurately conveys the message she is trying to send. Also, the receiver clearly understands the message. Many things can get in the way of good communication.
For example: When we assume we know what others are thinking, or that they should know what we are thinking.
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