In this tutorial, you will find the basic structure of a neuron, the different classes of neurons, and membrane potentials. It also includes the structure of the nervous system The human respiratory system is an efficient system of inspiring and expiring respiratory gases.
This tutorial provides details of the different parts and functions of the respiratory system The human body is capable of regulating growth and energy balance through various feedback mechanisms. Get to know the events of absorptive and post-absorptive states. This tutorial also describes the endocrine and neural control of compounds such as insulin and glucagon.
It also deals with the regulation of growth, heat loss, and heat gain. A running water environment offers numerous microhabitats for many types of animals. Each year in the U. No one can completely avoid the risk of resistant infections, but some people are at greater risk than others for example, people with chronic illnesses. If antibiotics lose their effectiveness, then we lose the ability to treat infections and control public health threats.
Many medical advances are dependent on the ability to fight infections using antibiotics, including joint replacements, organ transplants, cancer therapy, and treatment of chronic diseases like diabetes, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis.
Penicillin, the first commercialized antibiotic, was discovered in by Alexander Fleming. Ever since, there has been discovery and acknowledgement of resistance alongside the discovery of new antibiotics. In fact, germs will always look for ways to survive and resist new drugs. More and more, germs are sharing their resistance with one another, making it harder for us to keep up. Find more information on the development of antibiotic resistance in the latest AR Threats Report.
Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link. However, should the First Law be violated and resistance arise, this resistance has the potential of strengthening indefinitely—by virtue of the Second Law. Nevertheless, a corollary to the First Law points to the path allowing exiting this resistance process. In medicine in particular, the path making it possible to exit drug resistance through the design of drugs capable of withstanding it is given.
On the other hand, these features apply equally to resistance occurrence in agriculture. However, further research is needed relative to the application of the characterizations herein presented. Beyond medicine and agriculture, the characterizations presented here govern the natural process of biological resistance in living organisms as a whole and will strengthen our ability to successfully control resistance in various settings, including human medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, and beyond.
Looking forward, as the First Law governs the rise of resistance while the Second Law governs the growth of it, there is a Third Law and this was to be expected which governs the termination of resistance [ 94 ]. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Pathogens v. Published online May Rudolf Fullybright. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received May 16; Accepted May Associated Data Supplementary Materials pathogenss Abstract It has now been a century that drug resistance has been getting worse in human infectious diseases medicine.
Keywords: pathogen, antimicrobial, antibiotic, drug, resistance, infectious, design, pharmaceutical, combination, threshold, law. Introduction Drug resistance—or antimicrobial resistance—is the phenomenon by which pathogens destroy the effectiveness of drugs. Materials and Methods The First Law of Resistance is derived from the characteristics of resistance as a process that takes place across the entire biological realm and meets the definition of law.
Results and Discussion 3. Overview Because drug resistance strengthens exponentially and faster than we can produce drugs [ 11 ], human life loss and economic losses from both medicine and agriculture can only be expected to also rise exponentially. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Corollary to the First Law: Resistance Thresholds The First Law informs that the use of partial, insufficient control means in an attempt to restrain a biological organism will inevitably lead to resistance.
We define Threshold of Resistance in the control of biological organisms: Resistance Threshold RT : the least quantity of control means necessary to prevent the development of resistance. Successful Control of Resistance: Drug Design and the First Law of Resistance The observation that medicinal plants have shown, up to this day, no sign of falling victim to resistance in spite of their having been used in the battle against all kinds of pathogens since prehistoric times [ 56 , 57 ] is significant.
Overview By definition, resistance arises only as a result of an encounter between two opposing entities, at least one of which must be biological. Features of the Process and Second Law of Resistance Biological science informs that any living organism has its life to preserve and is therefore equipped with a natural instinct of self-preservation.
Medical Implications of the Second Law of Resistance A loophole is created in the Second Law through the existence of residual resistances.
Figure 2. Conclusions We have investigated some of the features characterizing biological resistance as a natural phenomenon displayed by all living organisms. Click here for additional data file. Funding This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest The author declares no conflict of interest. References 1. Benbrook C. Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U. Rather D.
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